BTO - British Trust for Ornithology - Renewables

Behavioural responses of Sandwich terns following the construction of offshore wind farms

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Wed, 06 Dec 2023 14:05:54 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

Thaxter, C.B., Green, R.M.W., Collier, M.P., Taylor, R.C., Middelveld, R.P., Scragg, E.S., Wright, L.J., Cook, A.S.C.P. & Fijn, R.C. Marine Biology 10.1007/s00227-023-04353-7 Offshore wind farms (OWFs) are a key part of efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change. However, they have the potential to negatively impact seabird species through collisions with turbine blades, displacement from preferred foraging habitat and the perception of wind farms as a barrier to migrating or foraging birds. Whilst the data available to model these impacts are increasing, many data gaps remain, particularly in relation to the impacts of barrier effects. We analyse the movements of Sandwich terns in relation to an offshore wind farm cluster using data collected as part of a multi-year GPS tracking study. Over the course of the study, two additional wind farms were built within the home range of the breeding colony. The construction of these wind farms coincided with a change in the foraging and commuting areas used by breeding terns. Whilst birds entered OWFs when foraging, they appeared to avoid them when commuting, driving an apparent ‘funnelling’ effect to important feeding locations. We discuss if this could be driven by changes to the prey base, subsequent displacement and potentially altered routes reflecting new favourable air flow patterns following OWF construction. Our results suggest that behavioural responses of birds to OWFs may be the result of a complex series of ecological and environmental interactions, as opposed to simplistic assumptions around the perception of the OWF as a barrier to movement. This study was funded by Equinor.

Flight heights obtained from GPS versus altimeters influence estimates of collision risk with offshore wind turbines in Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Tue, 24 Oct 2023 09:34:08 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

More Details

Johnston, D.T., Thaxter, C.B., Boersch-Supan, P.H., Davies, J.G., Clewley, G.D., Green, R.M.W., Shamoun-Baranes, J., Cook, A.S.C.P., Burton, N.H.K. & Humphreys, E.M. Movement Ecology 10.1186/s40462-023-00431-z The risk posed by offshore wind farms to seabirds through collisions with turbine blades is greatly influenced by species-specific flight behaviour. Bird-borne telemetry devices may provide improved measurement of aspects of bird behaviour, notably individual and behaviour specific flight heights. However, use of data from devices that use the GPS or barometric altimeters in the gathering of flight height data is nevertheless constrained by a current lack of understanding of the error and calibration of these methods. Uncertainty remains regarding the degree to which errors associated with these methods can affect recorded flight heights, which may in turn have a significant influence on estimates of collision risk produced by Collision Risk Models (CRMs), which incorporate flight height distribution as an input. Using GPS/barometric altimeter tagged Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus from two breeding colonies in the UK, we examine comparative flight heights produced by these devices, and their associated errors. We present a novel method of calibrating barometric altimeters using behaviour characterised from GPS data and open-source modelled atmospheric pressure. We examine the magnitude of difference between offshore flight heights produced from GPS and altimeters, comparing these measurements across sampling schedules, colonies, and years. We found flight heights produced from altimeter data to be significantly, although not consistently, higher than those produced from GPS data. This relationship was sustained across differing sampling schedules of five minutes and of 10 s, and between study colonies. We found the magnitude of difference between GPS and altimeter derived flight heights to also vary between individuals, potentially related to the robustness of calibration factors used. Collision estimates for theoretical wind farms were consequently significantly higher when using flight height distributions generated from barometric altimeters. Improving confidence in telemetry-obtained flight height distributions, which may then be applied to CRMs, requires sources of errors in these measurements to be identified. Our study improves knowledge of the calibration processes for flight height measurements based on telemetry data, with the aim of increasing confidence in their use in future assessments of collision risk and reducing the uncertainty over predicted mortality associated with wind farms. This project was funded by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS)’s Offshore Energy Strategic Environmental Assessment research programme.

Avoidance of offshore wind farms by Sandwich Terns in the North Sea increases with turbine density

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Fri, 20 Oct 2023 09:46:14 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

More Details

van Bemmelen, R.A., Leemans, J.J., Collier, M.P., Green, R.M.W., Middelveld, R.P., Thaxter, C.B. & Fijn, R.C. Ornithological Applications 10.1093/ornithapp/duad055 The expanding use of wind farms as a source of renewable energy can impact bird populations due to collisions and other factors. Globally, seabirds are one of the avian taxonomic groups most threatened by anthropogenic disturbance; adequately assessing the potential impact of offshore wind farms (OWFs) is important for developing strategies to avoid or minimize harm to their populations. We estimated avoidance rates of OWFs—the degree to which birds show reduced utilization of OWF areas—by Sandwich Terns (Thalasseus sandvicensis) at 2 breeding colonies in western Europe: Scolt Head (United Kingdom) and De Putten (the Netherlands). The foraging ranges of birds from each colony overlapped with multiple OWFs. We modeled GPS tracking data using integrated step selection functions (iSSFs) to estimate the relative selection of habitats at the scale of time between successive GPS relocations — in our case, 10 min, in which Sandwich Terns traveled ~2 km on average. Besides the effects of OWFs and the direct surroundings of OWFs, iSSFs considered distance from the colony and habitat characteristics (water depth and sediment grain size) as well as movement characteristics. Macro-avoidance rates, where 1 means complete avoidance, were estimated at 0.54 (95% CI: 0.35, 0.7) for birds originating from Scolt Head and 0.41 (95% CI: 0.21, 0.56) for those from De Putten. Estimates for individual OWFs also indicated avoidance but were associated with considerable uncertainty. Our results were inconclusive with regard to the behavioral response to the areas directly surrounding OWFs (within 1.5 km); estimates suggested indifference and avoidance, and were associated with large uncertainty. Avoidance rate of OWFs significantly increased with turbine density, suggesting OWF design may help to reduce the impact of OWFs on Sandwich Terns. The partial avoidance of OWFs by Sandwich Terns implies that the species will experience risks of collision and habitat loss due to OWFs constructed within their foraging ranges. Tracking Sandwich Terns at De Putten was funded by Rijkswaterstaat WVL as part of the Wozep programme. Tracking Sandwich Terns at Scolt Head was funded by Equinor as part of the strategic monitoring programme for Dudgeon.

About WinGS

WEBSITEEDITOR — Tue, 01 Aug 2023 16:27:18 +0000

The Winter Gull Survey is a long-running monitoring programme which has taken place approximately every ten years since 1953. The project’s overarching aim is to provide robust information on the numbers and distributions of wintering gulls, many of which are Amber- or Red-listed, and to inform their conservation.

common_gull_janis_jonans.png

History of the Winter Gull Survey

BTO carried out the first Winter Gull Survey (WinGS) in the winter of 1952/53, to collect data on wintering gull populations in the UK. Since then, the survey has been carried out around every 10 years. However, the most recent survey was from 2003/04–2005/6, and a substantial gap in our knowledge of our wintering gulls has developed.

To address this, we will be running WinGS over the winters of 2023/24 and 2024/25, to collect up-to-date information about the five most common gull species in the UK in winter. In 2024, WinGS will also collect data during the autumn. This will be the first time that data have been collected at this time of year.

Aims of the Winter Gull Survey

The project’s overarching aim is to provide updated information on the numbers and distributions of wintering gulls in the UK, its constituent countries, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

WinGS focuses on the six most numerous and widespread gull species in the UK during the winter months: Black-headed Gull, Mediterranean Gull, Common Gull, Herring Gull, Lesser Black-backed Gull and Great Black-backed Gull.

Information collected in this winter’s survey will start to fill the gaps in our knowledge which have developed since the last survey 20 years ago. This is particularly important given that gulls have been impacted by the ongoing outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), and we are still seeking to understand the full implications of this.

The updated information will help our scientists to:

Understand how wintering populations of gulls have changed over the last 20 years
Identify key autumn and wintering sites for these species, and inform their conservation
Determine how gulls have been impacted by HPAI.

Core data collected by Winter Gull Survey counts

The 2023–2025 WinGS will involve one core count in January 2024 or 2025, at known major – ‘key’ – roost sites, most of which will have been covered by previous surveys. Key roost sites will include large estuaries, lakes and reservoirs.

Gulls will be counted as they arrive to roost at dusk, and volunteers (often working as part of a team) will record the five commonest gull species in the UK (Black-headed Gull, Common Gull, Lesser Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull and Great Black-backed Gull) as well as less numerous gull species.

In order to generate complete population estimates, additional visits to sample stretches of coastline and sample inland squares will also be carried out to understand numbers and distributions outwith key sites.

Funding organisations

The Winter Gull Survey is supported by Defra, Country Nature Conservation Agencies and BTO.

Get in touch

Email us

Would you like to find out more about WinGS?

Drop us a line: wings [at] bto.org

Find us on Twitter

Subscribe to WinGS updates

Sign up for the WinGS Newsletter to hear the latest information about survey news, monitoring sites and scheme methodology.

Taking part

WEBSITEEDITOR — Tue, 01 Aug 2023 14:41:12 +0000

Find out how you can get involved in fieldwork for the Winter Gull Survey.

What skills do I need to take part?

WinGS is made up of two main counts: those at key gull roost sites, and those at ‘sample squares’ outwith the key sites.

winter_gull_survey_volunteers_mike_lane.png

Taking part in key roost site counts

Volunteers need to be confident that they can:

Count large numbers of birds accurately – roosts often number in the thousands.
Identify all gull species in flight as birds come in to roost, potentially in low light conditions.

In particular, volunteers need to be confident in identifying the six most abundant UK gull species: Black-headed Gull, Common Gull, Mediterranean Gull, Lesser Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull and Great Black-backed Gull.

Counting gulls at ‘sample squares’

If your gull ID skills are less comprehensive, you may be able to take part by counting gulls at ‘sample squares’ – additional stretches of coastline and inland areas outwith key sites. These squares are suitable for volunteers with less experience, although you will still need to be able to identify the five commonest gull species.

Improving your skills

If you want to improve your identification skills, or boost your confidence, we have resources to help you. We often run training events covering gull ID, and these are advertised on the BTO events pages.

You can also browse our gull ID videos, which are full of helpful advice for identifying both common and more unusual gull species.

How much time does it take?

The amount of time you spent volunteering for WinGS depends on the count(s) you take part in.

A single visit to a key site around dusk to count roosting gulls, in January 2024 or 2025.
Counting a ‘sample square’ on a single visit in January 2024 or 2025.
A single visit to a key site around dusk to count roosting gulls, in autumn 2024.

You will also need to spend time submitting your data to BTO.

How do I get involved?

Find a site to monitor

Key sites for WinGS counts cover the UK, Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Search the Vacant Site Map for available WinGS sites in your area.

Sign-up and survey dates

Sign-up is now open. You now can browse and sign up for WinGS survey sites (both at key roost sites and sample squares). Please bookmark this page and check frequently for the latest updates on taking part.

Oct 2023: Sign-ups for the 2023/24 winter counts begin.
Jan 2024: Survey visit(s) for the 2023/24 winter counts. Key Date: January 21st
Apr 2024: Sign-ups for the 2024 autumn counts begin (dates TBC).
Sept 2024: sign-ups for the 2024/25 winter counts.
Jan 2025: Survey visit(s) for the 2024/25 winter counts. Key Date: January 19th

To request sites, you will need to log in to the WinGS portal.

You will need a MyBTO account to log in to the WinGS portal. If you don’t already have one, you can create a MyBTO account now.

The BTO Regional Network and the National Survey Organiser will coordinate survey allocation to ensure that the required survey coverage is achieved.

Some sites will need to be covered by a team of volunteers carrying out a coordinated count on the same evening. These are the largest roost sites, where a high skill level and/or teams of volunteers will be essential for collecting robust data. If you sign up for a ‘team site’, you will need to liaise with the local organiser or team leader prior to carrying out the counts (their details will be provided for you).

You may also be able to contact your local bird club to find out more; some (though not all) clubs may be organising groups to survey larger sites.

There is a gull roost near me that’s not part of WinGS. What shall I do?

The survey does not attempt cover all small roost sites and the sample sites will be used to estimate the total number of gulls using smaller sites. Records of gulls at smaller roosts (less than a thousand birds in total) can be entered into BirdTrack (www.birdtrack.net). However, if the roost is being used by more than a thousand birds, please contact us to let us know about it at wings [at] bto.org).

Collecting data from your site

Key roost sites

If you have signed up to visit a key roost site, you will count gulls from a fixed point as the birds arrive to roost at dusk. You may do this alone or with a team of other volunteers, especially on larger sites. If your site is part of a larger team site it is important that you liaise with the team leader and cary out the count on the agreed date.

Roost counts at key sites will involve recording a large number of birds, some of which will continue to arrive during and after dusk. We do not expect observers to be able to identify all birds to species, and you will be able to record some gulls as ‘large gull species’ or ‘small gull species’ or even just as ‘gull species’. However, it is important that as many gulls as possible are identified to the species level.

Sample squares

If you are visiting a sample square, either at the coast or inland, you will need to follow the same guidance, although sample sites are standalone sites and will not normally involve working with a team.

We will publish full instructions for data collection closer to the time of the surveys. In the meantime, you can contact wings [at] bto.org with any questions or queries.

Submitting your data

Volunteers will be able to submit their counts via an online data entry system, in the WinGS portal.

However, in the case of some ‘team sites’, counters will submit their data to the team leader for the site who will submit a total count for the site. If you are covering part of a team site, please liaise with the team leader to check how you should submit your data.

Do gull counts I’ve submitted to BirdTrack, or sent to a County Bird Recorder, feed into WinGS?

Like most structured surveys, WinGS has bespoke data needs and therefore, transferring data from one place to another often does not cover all the survey-specific details needed.

The only way to send data to WinGS is through the WinGS Online system, completing all the sections required in the WinGS form.

You can continue to add roost counts to BirdTrack and/or send them directly to your County Bird Recorder if you wish. These data can then be used in a variety of ways from each database.

Resources

Recording forms for data collection

When collecting data, you should use a WinGS-specific recording form. These will be made available on this page prior to the survey counts starting. You can download and print these forms yourself, or request paper copies from wings [at] bto.org.

WinGS Organiser Handbook

Use these links to view or download the WinGS Organiser Handbook. This outlines the responsibilities of WinGS Organisers (WOs), and is a comprehensive guide to using the WinGS Organiser options within WinGS Online.

WinGS Introduction and Overview for WOs

WinGS Introduction and Overview for WOs (PDF, 143.01 KB)
Organising WinGS Counts and Counters

Organising WinGS Counts and Counters (PDF, 103.57 KB)
Using WinGS Online for WOs

Using WinGS Online for WOs (PDF, 757.07 KB)
WinGS Methodology for WOs

WinGS Methodology for WOs (PDF, 268.67 KB)

WinGS Counter Resources

Use these links to view or download the WinGS Counters Resources. These documents outline the aims and methods of WinGS for Counters.

WinGS Introduction and Overview for Counters (PDF, 506.00 KB)
WinGS Methodology and Counting Techniques (PDF, 448.00 KB)
WinGS Online for Counters (PDF, 787.07 KB)

WinGS Recording Forms

Inland Key Recording Form (PDF, 151.79 KB)
Inland Sample Recording Form (PDF, 151.87 KB)
Coastal Key Recording Form (PDF, 150.79 KB)
Coastal Sample Recording Form (PDF, 152.49 KB)

Health and Safety information for volunteers

WinGS involves evening-time observations of inland and coastal water bodies in mid January and in autumn.

Before you take part in this survey, please assess any site-specific risks you may encounter. Risks are likely to relate to cold weather and conditions of low light. If weather conditions are adverse or access to your site becomes dangerous in snowy or icy conditions please postpone any survey efforts.

We recommend you read BTO’s guidance for volunteer fieldworkers before starting your surveys.

Get in touch

Email us

Would you like to find out more about WinGS?

Drop us a line: wings [at] bto.org

Find us on Twitter

Subscribe to WinGS updates

Sign up for the WinGS Newsletter to hear the latest information about survey news, monitoring sites and scheme methodology.

Terms and Conditions of taking part

Standard Terms and Conditions

In participating in this British Trust for Ornithology (“BTO”, “Us”, “We”) activity, scheme or survey (“Project”) you are agreeing to the following terms and conditions:

Personal data and maintaining contact

If you are providing your name, address and other personal details, BTO will store and use your personal details in line with our published Privacy Policy (www.bto.org/about/privacy-statement or you can request a copy direct). You can specify your preferences surrounding the way we contact you at any time (email info [at] bto.org, or phone 01842 750050).

More specifically with regard to this project, in order to administer your participation and to verify the data you submit, we may need to be able to contact you (usually by email, overriding any other contact preference regarding receiving email). We may need to provide your name and email address to third parties, in case they need to contact you to verify the biological data you submit.

Biological data that you submit to us

A key charitable objective of BTO is to pursue scientific knowledge and conservation outcomes, in the public interest. By submitting contributions of biological and observational data to BTO you grant us perpetual, royalty-free, non-exclusive, sub-licensable permission to use, modify and redistribute the data as we see fit, to further this objective. This may include providing data you submit to third parties for the purposes of verification, processing and further analysis and use.

You give us this permission non-exclusively, meaning that you yourself still own your contribution. You may use, distribute or modify your individual contribution in any way you like. However, you do not possess ownership of any BTO dataset itself.

Some BTO projects allow participants to flag certain records as 'sensitive', enabling us to manage the way in which information may be displayed. Subject to project-specific terms and conditions, such 'sensitive' records may be made available to appropriate third parties, according to partnership agreements or at the discretion of BTO.

You may not contribute data to BTO that you neither own, nor have express permission to contribute on behalf of another individual or organisation.

Specific Terms and Conditions applying to those who register for the WinGS Online Surveys

In addition to the standard terms and conditions, you also agree to the following:

As stated in the ‘Personal data and maintaining contact’ section of the standard terms and conditions, we may need to provide your name and email address to third parties, in case they need to contact you to verify the biological data you submit.

For WinGS, we may also need to provide your name and email address to third parties so that they can contact you to co-ordinate the surveying of a site that requires a team of volunteers to cover. Such third parties for WinGS may include WinGS Local Organisers and/or WinGS Team Leaders).

You agree that any information you supply through WinGS Online (with the exception of personal data, see Privacy Policy www.bto.org/about/privacy-statement) may be disseminated at the discretion of the WinGS partners, including under the Open Government Licence (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3/).

You confirm that if you are submitting information on behalf of anyone else then they have also agreed that their information may be disseminated in the same manner.

You agree that any information you obtain from within the WinGS Online application (other than counts submitted by you) will not be used in any presentation, publication, report, etc. or be passed on to a third party without prior written permission from the BTO. However, a distinction is made with the WeBS Report Online (www.bto.org/webs-reporting), to which information from WinGS may be published as supplementary data.

Information from WinGS may be used under the Open Government Licence with appropriate attribution, if published in the WeBS Report Online or any other such facility that states permission is given for data re-use under licence.

You accept that whilst every effort is made to ensure data held by the WinGS partners are correct, the WinGS partners cannot accept responsibility for any errors in data provided. You accept that the WinGS partners cannot be held responsible for any misuse or misinterpretation of WinGS data.

Winter Gull Survey

WEBSITEEDITOR — Tue, 01 Aug 2023 13:56:17 +0000

The Winter Gull Survey collects information about our wintering gull populations, through the coordinated effort of volunteer surveyors across the UK. It will run over the winters of 2023/24 and 2024/25. Bird IdentificationBird Survey Techniques Friday, September 1, 2023 - 00:00 to Saturday, March 1, 2025 - 00:00

The Winter Gull Survey collects information about our wintering gull populations, through the coordinated effort of volunteer surveyors across the UK.

Visit the WinGS Vacant Site Map to view and request sites in your area.
The Key Date for 2024 surveys is January 21st.
Counts can be conducted a week before and after, as close to this key date as possible.

In winter, gulls flock together to roost communally on lakes, reservoirs and estuaries, in groups that can reach the thousands.

The Winter Gull Survey (WinGS) will run over the winters of 2023/24 and 2024/25 to collect updated information on the numbers and distributions of these wintering gulls in the UK, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

WinGS volunteers visit gull roost sites, counting six key species: Black-headed Gull, Common Gull, Mediterranean Gull, Lesser Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull and Great Black-backed Gull. These gulls are all of conservation concern, and their breeding populations are either Amber- or Red-listed in the UK.

Gathering more detailed information about wintering populations, and which roost sites they rely on, will help us protect them and develop more effective conservation strategies.

Find out how to volunteer for WinGS on the Taking part page.

Funding organisations

The Winter Gull Survey is supported by Defra, Country Nature Conservation Agencies and BTO.

Help monitor the UK’s threatened gull species by taking part in the Winter Gull Survey.

Emma Caulfield

Ian Woodward

Oct 2023: Volunteer sign-up for winter counts (2023/24)
Jan 2024: Survey visit(s) for winter counts
Mar 2024: Data submission
Apr 2024: Volunteer sign-up for autumn counts (2024)
Autumn 2024: Survey visit(s) for autumn counts
Sept 2024: Sign-ups for winter counts (2024/25)
Jan 2025: Survey visit(s) for winter counts
Mar 2025: Data submission
2026: Report and papers published

Subscribe to the WinGS Newsletter At least one evening visit to a gull roost or potential roosting site in January, with the option to conduct an autumn count and additional visits to sample squares. You must be able to identify gull species as they come to roost, potentially in low light levels. N/A SeabirdsUrban birdsWetland birds volunteers Yes wings@bto.org

Daily, seasonal and annual variation in area use of Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Larus fuscus) related to offshore renewable developments

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Wed, 04 Jan 2023 12:59:10 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

More Details

Clewley, G.D., Thaxter, C., Scragg, E.S., Masden, E.A., Barber, L.J., Conway, G., Clark, N.A. & Burton, N.H.K. Bird Study 10.1080/00063657.2023.2190080

Capsule

Individually tracked Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus rarely visited offshore areas in this study but showed high variation across multiple time scales in overall area use.

Aims

To quantify the variation in space use by Lesser Black-backed Gulls, a species of conservation concern, from short- and long-term data on tracked individuals, and to assess the time spent offshore and interacting with offshore wind farms (OWFs) before and after their construction.

Methods

GPS tracking data were collected between 2016 and 2019 from 36 Lesser Black-backed Gulls breeding in a declining colony in the UK with several operational OWFs nearby. Variations in home ranges, foraging trip metrics and the proportion of time spent offshore or within OWFs were analysed at three temporal scales: (i) over a daily cycle, (ii) across the breeding season and (iii) between years.

Results

Individuals predominantly used terrestrial areas. Less than 1.25% of the overall breeding season time budgets were spent offshore across years, and offshore use and time within OWFs did not vary significantly between years. However, home range sizes and foraging trip metrics did vary significantly across all time scales and individual variation was significant.

Conclusion

Our results suggested that there was little change in the relative use of offshore areas over time and thus in the macro-scale response of Lesser Black-backed Gulls to the OWFs, one of which was under construction during the period of study. Colony productivity and changes in the terrestrial environment were likely to be more important for influencing foraging movements at this colony.

This work was funded by Orsted.

BTO scientists have deployed hundreds of GPS tags on Lesser Black-backed Gulls since 2010. In this study, long-term GPS tracking devices were fitted to 36 adult gulls breeding at South Walney, in Cumbria. During the course of data collection (2016–19), two more offshore wind farms were built in addition to those already present in the area. This allowed the researchers to examine how tagged gulls’ habitat use might or might not change before, during and after the construction of these new developments.

Overall, the study showed that tagged Lesser Black-backed Gulls did not spend a lot of their time offshore (less than 1.25% of their overall time budgets). They spent slightly more of their time offshore at night (1.82%) than during the day (1.00%). The gulls’ individual ‘home ranges’ (the total area an animal uses for foraging and breeding) varied significantly from bird to bird, and through time. For instance, home ranges were smaller at night than during daylight hours, and they shrank in late May (when birds were spending a lot of time incubating their eggs) and again in late July (at the end of the breeding season). Similarly, the distance gulls covered on their trips away from the colony varied, with the shortest trips coinciding with late May and longer trips from August onwards, as birds began to lose their association with the colony and disperse after the end of the breeding season.

Only two tagged gulls had home ranges that overlapped with offshore wind farms, and fewer than half of the birds tracked visited an offshore wind farm in any given year. The proportion of birds visiting offshore wind farms did not vary significantly from year to year, including in areas of sea where wind farms were being built or coming into operation during the course of data collection.

The results from this tracking study were perhaps surprising. Although gulls are known to use a range of terrestrial areas, traditional thinking is that they still widely use offshore areas, especially during the chick rearing period. The lack of offshore movements in this study meant that broad responses in foraging and home ranges were not detected directly in relation to the construction of new developments.

Nonetheless, it was useful to show variation in these measures between years and to highlight the importance of a multi-year dataset. It was also useful to collect evidence specifically from a protected area located close to new offshore developments. South Walney is a nature reserve designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Protection Area. In the past, potential impacts on birds using protected areas close to new or existing developments were inferred from data collected at other sites. Thanks to this study we now have evidence from individuals at a protected site directly affected by the new developments.

A review to inform the assessment of the risk of collision and displacement in petrels and shearwaters from offshore wind developments in Scotland

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Thu, 08 Dec 2022 16:24:12 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

More Details

Deakin, Z., Cook, A., Daunt, F., McCluskie, A., Morley, N., Witcutt, E., Wright, L. Bolton, M. Scottish Government report 9781805250296

Scottish Government published the Sectoral Marine Plan for Offshore Wind in 2020, setting out sustainable plan options for the continued development of commercial-scale offshore wind energy in Scotland, as a key contribution to achieving the target of net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2045. In January 2022, Crown Estate Scotland announced the lease option agreements for 17 new projects within 14 Plan Option Areas, principally on the eastern and northern coasts.
Scotland’s seas and coastlines are home to a rich diversity of marine life, including internationally important colonies of seabirds, many protected under Scottish, UK and international designations. The need to ensure that future offshore developments do not adversely impact on protected sites and species is embedded within the Scottish Government’s National Marine Plan, and potential impacts to marine life and other users of the sea are required to be assessed as part of planning, consenting and licencing processes.
Several frameworks, methods and tools have been developed in recent years to facilitate the assessment of the likely impacts of offshore wind farm developments on seabirds, and these require data inputs on a variety of parameters relating to species morphology, ecology, behaviour and distribution.
This key information has not been collated for a group of seabird species for which Scotland holds some of the largest colonies in UK, Europe and globally; namely the Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus, Leach’s Storm-petrel Hydrobates leucorhous, and the European Storm-petrel Hydrobates pelagicus. These species are active nocturnally, and there is evidence to suggest they are sensitive to light attraction (“phototaxis”), which could render them especially vulnerable to negative impacts from offshore windfarms, for example, if attracted to the rotor-swept area by lights on the turbines that are required for navigation purposes. We also consider, in less detail, two further species from the same taxonomic group, namely Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis and Sooty Shearwater Ardenna grisea.
Low fecundity rates and a relatively protracted time to reach maturity (3–6 years) for these species, means seemingly small impacts on survival rates can have large impacts on population viability, making them particularly vulnerable to lethal impacts of wind farm development.
We reviewed the published peer-reviewed and grey literature for information on the 24 key parameters/data groups required to assess the vulnerability of these species to potential impacts of offshore wind farms and associated structures and activities.
We compiled a library of more than 1000 scientific papers, reports and other publications, from which we extracted all relevant information to assist in the implementation of methods and tools to quantify the likely population-level impacts of sites leased in the Sectoral Marine Plan Option areas. We highlight critical data gaps that currently prevent a reliable assessment of population-level impacts on protected colonies of these three species.
Good quality data from within Scotland exist for ten of the key parameters/data groups for all three main species (Manx Shearwater and the two storm-petrel species), and for just three parameters for the other two species. Data collected from elsewhere, or from closely related species, are available for 21 key parameters for all three main species. Less information is available for Leach’s Storm-petrel in Scotland than for the Manx Shearwater or European Storm-petrel.
The evidence needs that were highlighted as being most important for the three focal species were to improve understanding of: (i) biases in detectability of birds at sea; (ii) flight height and speed (and their variation); (iii) avoidance behaviour; (iv) light attraction and (v) foraging ranges from breeding colonies.
There is a need for experimental validation of potential biases in aerial survey methods, including detectability, identification and diel variation. Detectability could be tested by carrying out targeted digital aerial surveys or vessel-based surveys with an experimental approach, using either tagged model “decoys” or tagged free-roaming birds, though achieving adequate sample sizes of the latter may be challenging.
Estimates of flight parameters such as speed and height can be gained from tracking data, but acquiring accurate estimates is difficult, even with high resolution data. Where possible, “instantaneous” flight speeds from GPS tags, based on Doppler-shift information derived from the movement of the tag relative to the movement of the satellites, will be more accurate than that derived from distance covered between successive fixes. Constraints on device size/weight suitable for use on storm-petrels limit the range of tracking devices that can be deployed on these species.
Assessment of macro-avoidance of windfarm development can be achieved by comparing marine distributions of seabird pre- and post-construction. In light of the limited tracking of the three focal species in Scotland to date, we recommend further tracking studies from key colonies to better understand the pre-construction movements and distribution of these species. Such tracking studies should continue as construction occurs and after it is completed, to inform understanding of avoidance behaviour. Such work will also increase understanding of drivers of marine distribution and foraging ranges.
Crucially, we found that there is currently a lack of evidence on which to judge the existence and strength of light attraction in these species. It is clear from the evidence base that all three focal species may become disorientated by powerful light. This typically occurs in foggy conditions and particularly affects recently fledged young, who may still have under-developed visual capabilities. Under such circumstances, birds may circle a light source for many hours, until succumbing to dehydration or exhaustion. In the context of assessment of the likelihood of collision with turbine blades, the probability of collision is vastly increased, since a bird may pass through the rotor swept area many times. Attraction to or disorientation by light can also be considered a form of displacement, for example if birds are drawn away from foraging areas or behaviours.
A further compounding factor is the extent to which birds are drawn from a distance to the lights on turbine towers, or whether such attraction is very local (i.e. “micro-scale attraction”). Whilst there are many documented cases in the literature of seabirds dazzled by lighthouses, ships’ lights, gas flares from oil platforms, etc., the distances from which birds may be attracted are unknown. This is a critical distinction. If birds are attracted to bright light sources from considerable distance (i.e. hundreds of metres to kilometres) the potential for adverse impacts from collision is greatly increased, as the number of birds attracted scales as the square of the range from which they are drawn. Taken together, the effect of disorientation, causing birds to circle for many hours and increasing the number of passes through the rotor-swept area, and the potential for birds to be attracted from an area covering tens of square km, would render current methodologies of assessing impacts unreliable.
We recommend urgent studies to quantify the distance over which flight paths of these species may be influenced by bright light sources, to examine the age class of individuals most likely to be affected, and to assess whether the wavelength and pattern of illumination (flashing vs constant) may affect the level of attraction or disorientation. Such studies will require the novel application of tracking technology (e.g. use of thermal video imaging, radar, VHF and/or GPS tags). The most appropriate approach for each species will depend on device size/weight constraints and logistic constraints of particular breeding locations. We make recommendations as to how such studies may be conducted, suggest suitable locations, and highlight potential challenges.
We detail several options for mitigation of potential impacts, such as altering the wavelength or pattern of illumination of navigation lights on turbines and associated structures. We discuss the current technical and legislative constraints to such modifications.

Framework for assessing and mitigating the impacts of offshore wind energy development on marine birds

VIOLA.ROSS-SMITH — Thu, 24 Nov 2022 12:01:55 +0000

The Cuckoo cohort of 2024 takes flight!

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Croll, D.A., Ellis, A.A., Adams, J., Cook, A.S.C.P., Garthe, S., Goodale, M.W., Hall, C.S., Hazen, E., Keitt, B.S., Kelsey, E.C., Leirness, J.B., Lyons, D.E., McKown, M.W., Potiek, A., Searle, K.R., Soudijn, F.H., Rockwood, R.C., Tershy, B.R., Tinker, M., VanderWerf, E.A., Williams, K.A., Young, L. & Zilliacus, K. Biological Conservation 10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109795 Offshore wind energy development (OWED) is rapidly expanding globally and has the potential to contribute significantly to renewable energy portfolios. However, development of infrastructure in the marine environment presents risks to wildlife. Marine birds in particular have life history traits that amplify population impacts from displacement and collision with offshore wind infrastructure. Here, we present a broadly applicable framework to assess and mitigate the impacts of OWED on marine birds. We outline existing techniques to quantify impact via monitoring and modeling (e.g., collision risk models, population viability analysis), and present a robust mitigation framework to avoid, minimize, or compensate for OWED impacts. Our framework addresses impacts within the context of multiple stressors across multiple wind energy developments. We also present technological and methodological approaches that can improve impact estimation and mitigation. We highlight compensatory mitigation as a tool that can be incorporated into regulatory frameworks to mitigate impacts that cannot be avoided or minimized via siting decisions or alterations to OWED infrastructure or operation. Our framework is intended as a globally-relevant approach for assessing and mitigating OWED impacts on marine birds that may be adapted to existing regulatory frameworks in regions with existing or planned OWED. This research was supported by the Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management's Ecosystem Studies program (MC15AC00006) in support of the Southern California Bight Biodiversity Observation Network. Potiek's work on this project was supported by the Dutch governmental offshore wind ecological programme (Wozep).

A just transition to renewable energy

WEBSITEEDITOR — Thu, 21 Apr 2022 19:31:47 +0000

BTO's Aonghais Cook discusses the challenges associated with an environmentally sensitive, socially just transition to global renewable power. Yes

However, much of the increase in renewable energy will need to take place in developing and middle-income countries, in regions such as Africa, South America, Asia and the Middle East, as governments seek to meet the energy needs of their populations and ensure the stability and security of energy supply through renewables rather than fossil fuels. For example, India aims to increase its total renewable energy capacity from 100 GW today, to 500 GW, roughly 50% of its total energy needs, by 2030.

Developing renewable energy in these new and emerging markets can pose significant threats to the natural world. Many of these regions are characterised as being of high biodiversity value relative to areas where renewable energy is more established, such as western Europe or North America.

At the same time, many of these countries lack much of the basic information on species distribution, abundance and behaviour that we, in the UK, take for granted. In the absence of this information, there is a risk that the green credentials of renewable energy projects may be undermined due to unforeseen impacts on threatened and declining species. For example, collisions with power lines associated with wind energy projects in Rajasthan pose a significant threat to the Great Indian Bustard, a species classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN.

However, in the face of climate change, we cannot afford delays to renewable energy projects while we collect the data necessary to address these gaps in our knowledge, a process that may take several years.

Vinod Bartakke / stock.adobe.com

The Great Indian Bustard is classified as Critically Endangered but is threatened further by collisions with power lines associated with renewable energy development in Rajasthan.

Starting the conversation

To better understand the challenges faced by those developing wind energy projects in these new and emerging markets, and how these may be overcome, I worked with David Tidhar from National Power to deliver a session as part of the April 2022 Conference on Wind Energy and Wildlife Impacts (CWW) in the Netherlands.

We involved practitioners and stakeholders working in Argentina, South Africa, Egypt, Jordan and Croatia in our session, and, across the discussions, we heard common themes emerging: regulatory frameworks struggling to keep up with the pace of development, the need to adapt and build on guidelines developed in places like the UK, the need to increase local capacity to undertake biodiversity surveys or monitoring, and the need for cooperation between stakeholders at both a national and regional scale.

Rainer Furhmann / stock.adobe.com

Common Cranes are particularly susceptible to fatality from collision with wind turbines.

One way to overcome the challenges has been the regular communication and coordination between the entities – lenders, developers, government and RSCN, the Jordanian BirdLife partner – to develop national guidelines. Laith El-Moghrabi (Fieldfare Ecology, Jordan)

Adapting guidelines for unique challenges

The work being done in the UK on assessing the environmental impacts of wind energy is world-leading, with frequent reference over the course of the session made to the guidelines developed by NatureScot.

However, as Laith El-Moghrabi from Jordan highlighted, we can’t just assume that guidelines from one country can be directly applied elsewhere. There may be nuances in relation to the species of interest that mean alternative survey methodologies are needed, or logistical challenges relating to site access, for example.

Consequently, many countries have developed their own guidelines for assessing the impacts of wind energy, often adapting those initially created elsewhere to fit their unique needs. Where this has been done successfully, it has involved careful collaboration between multiple stakeholders, including the appropriate government ministries and NGOs, such as local BirdLife partners.

It’s particularly important that this information be provided in the language of the countries where it will be utilised, since it has to reach a wide variety of stakeholders. Pablo Brandolin (Universidad Nacional de Rio Cuarto, Argentina)

International collaboration

As efforts to speed up the deployment of renewable energy projects increase, international spaces for sharing knowledge and experiences will become ever more important. Initiatives such as the Convention on Migratory Species Energy Task Force (ETF), of which BTO is a member, offer the potential for established and emerging markets for wind energy to discuss the challenges they face and promote solutions to these challenges.

One such solution was the development of a good practice handbook for post-construction bird and bat fatality monitoring at operational wind farms, initially proposed at a previous CWW and then facilitated and promoted through the ETF. This handbook sets out a series of minimum criteria that are necessary to obtain robust data in relation to fatality rates information at wind farms in emerging markets.

Sreeraj / stock.adobe.com

Muppandal Wind Farm, Tamil Nadu, India - the the largest operational onshore wind farm in India.

Power lines extending from a wind farm in the Egyptian desert. These can cause wildlife fatalities through collisions if sited on major migratory flyways. octofocus / stock.adobe.com

Developing and maintaining capacity

A lack of appropriately trained staff can represent a significant barrier to delivering environmentally sensitive wind energy projects in these countries. We need to ensure that there are sufficient fieldworkers available locally to carry out monitoring, analysts to interpret and report the resulting data, and governmental advisors and regulators to ensure that standards and guidelines are being followed.

A variety of initiatives are underway to address these capacity problems, including formal and informal collaborations between researchers working nationally and regionally to share knowledge and experiences. We also see developers such as Lekela Power, who oversee more than 1 GW of wind energy in Africa, set up training programmes to equip local people with the skills they need to carry out monitoring at operational wind farms, providing valuable employment opportunities for local communities.

However, further effort to build capacity, particularly for analysis, is of vital importance.

We lack basic understanding of those populations – how they migrate, how they fluctuate – and this is a challenge while assessing wind farms. Boris Božić (Milvus Consultancy, Croatia)

Finance and funding

A consequence of developing projects in regions with limited baseline biodiversity data is that impacts, like bird and bat collisions, may be greater than initially expected. To address this, developers can use measures such as altering turbine speeds to avoid conditions when bats are active or shutting down turbines in response to the presence of vulnerable species, such as raptors. Organisations such as the Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE) have demonstrated how this can be achieved successfully at a regional scale in the Gulf of Suez.

However, such schemes carry a financial cost due to the reduction in energy generated. Many of the projects in emerging markets are funded by international development banks. Lori Anna Conzo from the International Finance Corporation highlighted how these funders now require that the financial cost of the reduction in energy generated, to protect vulnerable species, is included in the costs associated with any project. This helps to ensure the financial viability of projects, while minimising impacts on biodiversity.

cww-emerging-markets-session-attendees-2022.jpg

Some of the CWW 2022 Emerging Markets Session participants. From left to right: Laith El-Moghrabi, David Tidhar, Lori Anna Conzo, Boris Božić, Karen Low, Aonghais Cook

The emerging markets session at CWW 2022 was organised by BTO and Natural Power with input from Lori Anna Conzo (International Finance Corporation), Rhiannon Niven and Tris Allinson (BirdLife International), Ali Khazma (RCREEE), Duncan Lang (Asian Development Bank), Kate MacEwan (Western Ecosystems Inc.), Jennifer Boca (Lekela Power), Laith El-Moghrabi (Fieldfare Ecology), Boris Božić (Milvus Consultancy), Karen Low (juwi) and Pablo Brandolin (Universidad Nacional de Rio Cuarto).

Considering socioeconomics

As the wind energy industry expands globally, it is important that we do not lose sight of potential social issues amid concerns about environmental impacts. Wind energy can bring many benefits to local communities, including employment opportunities and increased stability of energy supply.

In South Africa, Karen Low from juwi Renewable Energy discussed concerns about a project planned for a protected area expansion focus area. Whilst the wider landscape is of ecological importance, the project itself was sited on communal land used for grazing which would not meet traditional criteria for protected area status. Consequently, this project was deemed compatible with a 'functioning landscape', with no detrimental impacts on the people who rely on the area for their livelihood. This highlights the importance of considering both social and environmental concerns when identifying areas that can, or cannot, be used for development.

The need for a just transition

In addition to being a central part of strategies to combat climate change, the development of renewable energy brings with it jobs and economic development. It also increases access to electricity for communities that may lack access to energy altogether, or be under-served by existing, often carbon-derived, sources, and provides energy security for nations.

We cannot expect developing and middle-income countries to forgo these advantages due to uncertainties in assessing the negative environmental impacts associated with renewable energy.

Instead, we must offer the support needed to enable a socially just transition to environmentally sensitive renewable energy development.

Featured Publication

Peer-reviewed papers

Hotspots in the grid: avian sensitivity and vulnerability to collision risk from energy infrastructure interactions in Europe and north Africa

2022 | Gauld, J.G., Silva, J.P., Atkinson, P.W., Record, P., Acácio, M., Arkumarev, V., Blas, J., Bouten, W., Burton, N., Catry, I., Champagnon, J., Clewley, G.D., Dagys, M., Duriez, O., Exo, M., Fiedler, W., Flack, A., Friedemann, G., Fritz, J., Garcia-Ripolles, C., Garthe, S., Giunchi, D., Grozdanov, A., Harel, R., Humphreys, E.M., Janssen, R., Kölzsch, A., Kulikova, O., Lameris, T.K., López-López, P., Masden, E.A., Monti, F., Nathan, R., Nikolov, S., Oppel, S., Peshev, H., Phipps, L., Pokrovsky, I., Ross-Smith, V.H., Saravia, V., Scragg, E.S., Sforzi, A., Stoynov, E., Thaxter, C., Van Steelant, W., van Toor, M., Vorneweg, B., Waldenström, J., Wikelski, M., Žydelis, R. & Franco, A.M.A.

Journal of Applied Ecology

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How can we achieve global targets for renewable energy in an environmentally sensitive, socially just transition?

2 April 2022

The recently released IPCC report highlights the importance of rapidly expanding renewable energy use if we are to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. In countries like the UK, it can be easy to take this expansion for granted as we see rapid increases in targets for renewable energy, such as the recently announced policy to increase offshore wind capacity from 30 to 50 GW by 2030.

Wind turbines. Melanie Kocheva / stock.adobe.com

21 Apr 2022 no